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A social enterprise is an organization that applies commercial strategies to maximize improvements in human and environmental well-being - this may include maximizing social impact rather than profits for external shareholders. Social enterprises can be structured as a for-profit or non-profit, and may take the form (depending in which country the entity exists and the legal forms available) of a co-operative, mutual organization, a disregarded entity, a social business, a benefit corporation, a community interest company or a charity organization.〔Ridley-Duff, R. J. and Bull, M. (2011) ''Understanding Social Enterprise: Theory and Practice'', London: Sage Publications.〕 Many commercial enterprises would consider themselves to have social objectives, but commitment to these objectives is motivated by the perception that such commitment will ultimately make the enterprise more financially valuable. These are organisations that might be more properly said to be operating ''corporate responsibility programs''. Social enterprises differ in that their commitment to impact is central to the mission of the business. Some may not aim to offer any benefit to their investors, except where they believe that doing so will ultimately further their capacity to realize their social and environmental goals, although there is a huge amount of variation in forms and activities. The term has a mixed and contested heritage due to its philanthropic roots in the United States, and cooperative roots in the United Kingdom, European Union and Asia.〔Ridley-Duff, R. J. and Bull, M. (2011) ''Understanding Social Enterprise: Theory and Practice'', London: Sage Publications, see Chapter 3.〕 In the US, the term is associated with 'doing charity by doing trade', rather than 'doing charity ''while'' doing trade'. In other countries, there is a much stronger emphasis on community organising and democratic control of capital and mutual principles, rather than philanthropy.〔Kerlin, J. (2009) ''Social Enterprise: A Global Comparison'', University Press of New England.〕 In recent years, there has been a rise in the concept of social purpose businesses which pursue social responsibility directly, or raise funds for charitable projects.〔(Ridley-Duff, R. J. and Southcombe, C. (2011) ) "The Social Enterprise Mark: a critical review of its conceptual dimensions", paper to 34th International Small Business and Entrepreneurship Conference, Sheffield. Winner of 'Best Research and Knowledge Transfer Paper in Conference'〕 == History and philosophy == Social enterprise has a long history around the world, though under different names and with different characteristics.〔Aiken, M. (2010)〕 Whilst many social enterprises will today accept finance and other forms of support from the state, particularly those with a nonprofit form, they are essentially enterprises that seek independence from both the state and private capital through strategies that create a social economy. Modern formative influences include the Italian worker co-operatives that lobbied to secure legislation for 'social co-operatives' in which members with mental or other health disabilities could work while fully recovering. The first academic paper to propose worker co-operatives involved in health and rehabilitation work as a form social enterprise was published in 1993.〔Savio, M. and Rhigetti, A. (1993) "Co-operatives as a social enterprise", ''Acta Psychiatrica Scadanavica'', 88(4), p. 238-42.〕 The scale and integration of co-operative development in the 'red belt' of Italy (some 7,000 worker, and 8,000 social co-operatives) inspired the formation of the EMES network of social economy researchers who subsequently spread the language to the UK and the rest of Europe through influential English language publications.〔Borzaga, C. and Defourny, J. (2001) The Emergence of Social Enterprise, Routelege.〕 In the US, the work of Ashoka was picked up at Harvard, Stanford and Princeton universities, and each made contributions to the development of the field of social entrepreneurship through project initiatives and publications. Social enterprises are often regarded – erroneously – as nonprofit organisations, although many do take on a nonprofit legal form and are treated in academic literature on the subject as a branch or sub-set of nonprofit activity (especially when contrasted with Social Businesses). Social enterprise can be characterized by open membership and goals widely considered to be in the community or public interest, although some social enterprises are more tightly held and can include proprietary organizations with private membership. A useful, although by no means universal perspective, created by social enterprise consultants across four continents after a review by Social Enterprise Europe, highlights three factors which can frame the business philosophy of a social enterprise:〔(What is social enterprise? ) Social Enterprise Europe. This definition followed a review by 14 experienced consultants working across four continents.〕 * The extent to which it engages in ethical review of the goods and services it produces, and its production processes; * The extent to which it defines its social purpose(s), and evidences its social impact; * The extent to which it democratises ownership, management and governance by passing control of its human, social and financial capital to its primary stakeholders (producers, employees, customers, service users). Their international definition states: "Not for Profit is a misleading criterion. It is good practice for social enterprises to provide incentives to workers, and social and community investors through dividends. Distribution of profits or payments to individuals should not compromise the enterprises' value statement or social objectives".〔(What is social enterprise? ) Social Enterprise Europe.〕 The field of social enterprise studies has not yet developed firm philosophical foundations, but its advocates and academic community are much more engaged with critical pedagogies (e.g. Paulo Freire) and critical traditions in research (e.g. critical theory / institutional theory / Marxism) in comparison to private sector business education.〔Ridley-Duff, R. J. and Bull, M. (2011), Introduction〕〔Nicholls, A. (2006) ''Social Entrepreneurship: New Models of Sustainable Social Change'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.〕 Teaching related to the social economy draws explicitly from the works of Robert Owen, Proudhon and Karl Marx with works by Bourdieu and Putnam informing the debate over social capital and its relationship to the competitive advantage of mutuals. This intellectual foundation, however, does not extend as strongly into the field of social entrepreneurship where there is more influence from writings on liberalism and entrepreneurship by Joseph Schumpeter, in conjunction with the emerging fields of social innovation, actor–network theory and complexity theory to explain its processes. Social enterprise (unlike private enterprise) is not taught exclusively in a business school context, as it is increasingly connected to the health sector and public service delivery. The Oxford University's Said Business School, does host the Skoll World Forum, however, a global event focused on social entrepreneurs. The first international journal was established in 2005 by Social Enterprise London (with support from the London Development Association). The ''Social Enterprise Journal'' has been followed by the ''Journal of Social Entrepreneurship'', and coverage of the issues pertaining to the social economy and social enterprise are also covered by the ''Journal of Co-operative Studies'' and the ''Annals of Co-operative and Public Economics''. The European Social Enterprise Research Network (EMES) and the Co-operative Research Unit (CRU) at the Open University have also published research into social enterprise. The Skoll World Forum, organised jointly by Oxford and Duke universities, brings together researchers and practitioners from across the globe. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「social enterprise」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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